中西文化的異同范文

時間:2023-09-25 18:23:41

導語:如何才能寫好一篇中西文化的異同,這就需要搜集整理更多的資料和文獻,歡迎閱讀由公務員之家整理的十篇范文,供你借鑒。

篇1

關鍵詞:中小企業;融資;對策;體制;渠道

中圖分類號:F27

文獻標志碼:A

文章編號:1000-8772(2009)14-0106-02

在國際舞臺上,一個國家是否強盛,很大程度上決定于該國是否擁有一批在國際上有巨大影響力的大型企業。然而,一個國家是否繁榮,人民是否安居樂業,卻決定于該國的中小企業是否健康發展。改革開放以來,我國的中小企業有了令世界為之稱奇的迅速發展,為國民經濟持續快速發展做出了重要的貢獻。但中小企業長期受到融資困難的困擾,現已成為制約其進一步發展的瓶頸。因此,如何應對挑戰,解決中小企業普遍遇到的融資困境,就成為整個國民經濟發展最為關鍵的因素之一!

一、困境與機遇:中小企業融資現狀分析

現狀之一:中小企業融資總額與其對國民經濟的貢獻不成比例

1998年中央正式提出要“增加向中小企業貸款”,2000年國務院《關于鼓勵和促進中小企業發展的若干政策意見》后,中小企業融資形勢雖然有所好轉,總體上看并沒有取得突破性進展。長期以來,中小企業對國民經濟的貢獻遠大于50%,但融資額占總融資額比例始終徘徊在30%以下。

現狀之二:融資渠道過窄

目前,中小企業融資主要是間接融資,其中銀行貸款占絕大份額。據中國人民銀行最新調查顯示,我國中小企業融資的98.7%來自銀行貸款,直接融資僅占1.3%。在求告無門的情況下,不少中小企業被迫地下資本市場甚至向高利貸借貸,以致在高息盤剝下,走上不歸之路。

現狀之三:融資成本高

且不說有些中小企業背負地下錢莊甚至高利貸的高利息之苦,就是向銀行貸款其直接成本和間接成本也顯著高于大型國有企業。一是申請貸款十次,也難成三兩次;二是銀行利用利率浮動之權,對中小企業一般采取寧高勿低的態度;三是銀行利用其壟斷地位,尋租行為泛濫,中小企業深受灰色索取之累。

而系統分析中小企業融資難的成因,主要有以下幾種,同時,這些原因也是眾多國內中小企業融資時面對的主要挑戰:

挑戰之一:企業弱小,無力進入資本市場

我國中小企業大多規模小、技術含量低、管理落后,市場風險很大,不具備進入資本市場的條件。

挑戰之二:融資體制改革滯后

目前,商業銀行推行的授權授信制度主要是針對國有大中型企業而制定的,信貸資金主要流向大型企業特別是國有大型企業,近年資金向“大城市、大企業、大行業”集中有進一步強化的趨勢。銀行把貸款貸給大型企業,效率高、風險低、收益豐厚。而中小企業貸款金額小、頻率高、時間急、駐地分散甚至偏遠,可資抵押擔保的資產少,銀行對中小企業貸款的管理成本高、風險大,同時,利率遠沒有市場化,都影響了銀行的貸款積極性。

挑戰之三:直接融資門檻高

無論是主權融資還是債券融資,其門檻之高,是絕大多數中小企業不可企及的。

挑戰之四:對中小企業的作用和地位認識不足,是其融資困難的根本性原因。

發展中小企業既是關乎國計的經濟問題,又是關乎民生的政治問題。但是,人們往往僅僅看重向大型企業傾斜的短期利益,忽視了支持中小企業發展的長遠利益。因此,支持中小企業融資的法規和政策,或因認識模糊而姍姍來遲,或因缺乏配套措施而難以操作。面對嗷嗷待哺的中小企業,有識之士也深感無奈。

二、未來與希望:走出融資困境的對策

面對上述種種挑戰,我們要從企業自身以及外部整體環境兩個方面尋找希望:

首先,從整個行業的整體從業環境來看,我們要從以下幾方面尋求突破。

一是要從根本上加快金融體系改革步伐,為中小企業融資打開一片天地。用市場經濟的觀點觀察,各大銀行“重大輕小”是可以理解的。我們不能指望銀行以犧牲其自身利益來無條件第支持中小企業融資,那是有違市場經濟規律的,對銀行既不公平也不可持續。應當為中小企業服務專門設立一個銀行體系,制定專門的法律法規,是大多數中小企業求告有門。既然有專門為農業服務的農發行,也可以仿此辦理。當然,與農發行相比,專門為中小企業服務的銀行,應當是完全與市場接軌的金融機構。

二是需要建立新型信用擔保體系。國有銀行面對數量多、規模小、可抵押擔保資產少的中小企業,很難準確掌握中小企業的信用狀況,因而難以做出正確的貸款決策。為化解銀行風險于事前,應設立專門為中小企業服務的擔保公司,由擔保公司作為保證人,化解銀行放貸風險。銀行掌握一個個數量眾多的中小企業資信情況,成本高、風險大,掌握數量有限的擔保公司的資信情況,成本大幅度下降、準確率大幅度上升。至于擔保公司分布于中小企業相對集中的地方,面對的是數量有限的中小企業,它們的資信狀況很容易收集與掌握。

三是要重塑市場誠信體系。中小企業應加強自身的信用建設。近年來社會誠信體系受到極大的沖擊,從產品造假到會計造假大有泛濫之勢,加大了銀行識別中小企業信用狀況的難度。銀行從規避風險出發,不得不對放貸持謹慎態度,中小企業貸款更為困難。因此,我們需要有針對性地逐步重塑市場誠信體系。一方面,要發展信用中介體系尤其是信用評價體系,因為目前我國信用評價工作主要由銀行承擔,其專業水準和可信度,都值得懷疑,只有獨立的第三方評價機構提出的結論,才是可信的。另一方面,要建立信用風險控制與防范機制,防患于未然,特別是金融、稅務、工商等機構和部門,要對掌握的企業信用記錄,實現信息共享,從而降低社會誠信成本。同時,我們還要從教育層面上,占領道德建設的制高點,消除拜金主義的影響,要加大破壞誠信原則行為的懲處力度,加大違法違規行為成本。

篇2

關鍵詞:中國傳統文化;西方文化;儒家思想;中國武術

中圖分類號:G03 文獻標識碼:A 文章編號:1673-2596(2014)03-0121-02

眾所周知,中國深受西方文化的影響,從“西學東漸”到改革開放,西方文化漸漸深入我們的生活。但不可忽視的是,中國文化對西方文化也產生了直接或間接的影響。不管是中國傳統儒家、道家文化,還是武術、戲曲等中國傳統文化精華,以及節日、飲食等生活習俗,都為西方文化添上了濃墨重彩的一筆。

一、西方文學與中國傳統文化有著解不開的淵源

早在14世紀初,意大利商人馬可?波羅便以其《馬可?波羅游記》(又稱《東方見聞錄》)將神秘的中國文化帶到了西方世界。16世紀末,當西方基督傳教士踏上中國土地之時,中國文化再次被更深層次地了解。意大利傳教士利瑪竇堪稱一位不折不扣的漢學家,他不僅在中國傳播天主教,同時也是第一位認真研習中國文學和典籍的西方學者。他所帶給西方的中國文化,不再僅僅局限于簡單的地理知識和風土人情,同時還包括對中國思想文化更深層次的學習、研究與思考。他非常推崇中國的儒家思想,認為其可為國家的政治、哲學、教育體制以及禮俗規范等提供有力的評價標準。如他在《十六世紀的中國:利瑪竇游記》中這樣寫道:“被稱為中國圣哲之師的孔子,把更古的哲學家的著作匯編成四部書,自己又撰寫了五部。他給這五部書題名為‘經’,內容包括導向正當生活的倫理原則、指導政治行為的教誡、習俗、古人的榜樣、他們的禮儀和祭祀以及甚至他們詩歌的樣品和其他這類的題材?!盵1]而正是儒家思想進一步推動了歐洲的文藝復興運動,并成為歐洲近代啟蒙運動的重要思想源泉。法國啟蒙思想家孟德斯鳩在《論法的精神》中以《中國的良好風俗》一文這樣論述孔子、孟子“以人為本”的政治思想:“有關中國的記述,談到了中國皇帝每年舉行一次親耕的儀式。這種公開而隆重的儀式的目的是要鼓勵人們從事耕耘。不但如此,中國皇帝每年都要知道誰是耕種上最優秀的農民,而且給他八品官做?!盵2]可以說,中國傳統文化對近代西方產生了很大的影響,大批的中國著作、學術典籍等被翻譯后介紹到西方;同時,一些西方學者也相繼出版、發表了大量以推崇儒家思想為代表的中國文化的相關作品,如法國傳教士諾爾翻譯了《六本中國經籍》、萊布尼茲寫出了《中國近事》、吳爾夫寫出了的《關于中國人的實踐哲學的講話》等作品。可以說,中國的哲學、文化以及政治制度等思想對西方社會的發展發揮了非常重要的積極作用。

以梭羅的《瓦爾登湖》為例,在這本著作中,梭羅多次用到中國的儒家經典,其思想與中國的傳統哲學思想存在很多契合之處。如他在書中這樣寫道:“‘人之所以異于禽獸者幾?!献诱f,‘庶民去之,君子存之?!ā睹献?離婁下》)如果我們謹守著純潔,誰知道將會等到何等樣的生命?”[3]以此來闡述其“人要去惡從善,潔身自好”的主張。與此同時,梭羅在瓦爾登湖畔與自然親近,吃著簡單的食物,過著陶淵明般“采菊東籬下,悠然見南山”的恬淡生活。他聽聞成湯王的浴盆上刻著“茍日新,日日新,又日新”,便每日清晨在湖中沐浴,在晨光中冥想。他倡導樸素的生活方式,強調淡泊心境,并在書中用孔子“三軍可奪帥也,匹夫不可奪志也”[4]來激勵人們要堅守自我,不要輕易言棄??梢哉f,梭羅的思想在很大程度上受到了以儒家為代表的中國傳統文化的影響,以梭羅為代表的美國超驗主義者與中國傳統文化有著解不開的淵源。

到了20世紀,英國著名作家詹姆斯?希爾頓的著作《消失的地平線》更是處處充滿中國文化。小說為讀者描繪了一個位于中國,有著高聳的雪山、美麗的峽谷,到處充滿祥和與安寧的理想樂園――香格里拉。這里的人們與世隔絕,長壽且年輕,更是有著別樣的生活方式。詹姆斯?希爾頓不僅將這個神秘的烏托邦置于中國,更是將中國的文化貫穿于故事的始終。

儒家思想是中國文化的主體,其也深深吸引了詹姆斯?希爾頓的目光。香格里拉的人們遵循“適度”的原則,信仰“無為”的思想。而這種“適度”的原則和“無為”的思想,使人們對“懶散”擁有新的定義和解釋方式,放慢腳步去生活,與西方工業文明下快節奏的生活狀態形成了鮮明的對比。書中,布林克洛小姐將寺中喇嘛的靜心修煉總結為無所事事,而最高喇嘛卻認為“慵懶對于做蠢事來說是一種美德”。正是這種“中庸之道”和“無為”的思想,使這里的人們崇尚以適度的慢節奏來體味生活。

此外,在對山谷的管理上,儒家的“中庸之道”和道家的“無為而治”思想更是體現得淋漓盡致。香格里拉采取相對寬松甚至可以說是較為松散的管理模式,而其結果正如主人公康維所看到的,山谷的人們生活富足,大家都親切和善,一派安寧祥和的景象。這也再次體現出了西方對中國古代政治管理體制的推崇。

可以說,《消失的地平線》展現了包括儒家的“中庸之道”、道家的“無為而治”等思想,以及中國藏傳佛教在內的中國傳統文化精華,體現了西方對中國傳統文化的探究、推崇與思考。

二、中國傳統文化逐漸成為西方影視作品中的新寵

近年來,西方影視作品亂起了一股“中國風”,中國面孔屢屢出現在好萊塢大片中,中國的武術、傳統工藝以及服飾、飲食等也成為熒屏新寵。中國文化以其獨特魅力吸引著西方的人們,早在1755年,在巴黎公演的伏爾泰根據中國元曲《趙氏孤兒》改編的《中國孤兒》就已在歐洲引起轟動。

首先,中國武術是不能不提及的重要元素。西方一直癡迷于中國武術,成龍和李連杰早已是家喻戶曉的功夫明星?!豆Ψ蛑酢贰豆Ψ蛐茇垺贰豆Ψ驂簟罚@些好萊塢大片展現了不同類別、套路的中國武術的精彩絕倫和博大精深,并努力去呈現中國武術的精神和內涵。如《功夫夢》向人們展示了中國太極拳的“仙風道骨”,成龍在影片中將“氣”解釋為萬物之本源,體現了中國的道家思想。再如《功夫熊貓》中,老虎、螳螂、蛇、鶴、猴子分別代表了一種中國武術的拳法,而熊貓的黑白與太極之陰陽有效地結合了起來,道家順其自熱,無為而治,講求內心平和的思想也在影片中屢次體現??梢哉f,中國功夫是西方不斷追求和發掘的重要元素,也是中國傳統文化對西方影響最大的一個元素。

其次是中國精神和中國人的處事態度。災難大片《2012》展現了在世界末日來臨之際,中國制造的“諾亞方舟”拯救了幾十萬人的生命,使人類迎來了新的紀元。影片將最后的拯救之地選在了中國,而中國人也在如此短的時間內完成了“只有中國人才能完成的”“諾亞方舟”的制造。面對困難的不屈不撓,自強不息、頑強拼搏的精神,以及舍己為人的淳樸的中國形象躍然于屏幕??梢哉f,堅強、穩重、淡然、友善的中國精神和處事態度已在西方備受贊賞和推崇。

三、中國傳統文化要讓世界真正接納和推崇

從文學以及影視作品中,我們可以看到中國傳統文化對西方文化產生了重要影響。但是,當我們再次深入分析,會發現這些影響有時還處于一種淺顯、或者說是一種借以利用,甚至有時是誤讀的狀態。

例如:在梭羅的《瓦爾登湖》中,孔子關于要用仁義和道德來教化百姓的論述,被用來闡述人要簡單地生活、注重精神的充實而非物質的享受。可以說是對儒家思想的一種誤讀。又如,《消失的地平線》中,香格里拉最高喇嘛佩勞爾特卻是一個盧森堡人,而其所選定的最合適的繼承者康維也是英國人,而不是中國人。再如:電影《2012》雖然多次出現中國面孔,贊揚中國精神,而事實上卻是世界人民在美國的領導下成功抵抗人類滅亡災難的過程。而中國所扮演的角色僅是一種元素,一種西方宣揚自身文化和價值觀的借力物。

中國是一個擁有著幾千年歷史和優秀文化的國度,其文化對西方的影響自古以來便未曾停歇。隨著中國國力的不斷增強,國際地位的不斷提升,中國文化越來越受到關注,文化影響力亦是不斷加強。但值得我們注意的是,中國文化的影響力不能僅僅停留在表面階段,不能僅僅是他國宣揚本國文化的墊腳石。中國文化需揭去自己的神秘面紗,讓西方、讓世界更加清晰地了解中國傳統文化的精髓。同時,中國傳統文化也應從西方文化中汲取精華之物,不斷發展和完善自身,展現自己獨特的精彩之處,以至讓世界真正接納和推崇。

――――――――――

參考文獻:

〔1〕利瑪竇,金尼閣.利瑪竇中國札記[M].北京:中華書局,1983.

篇3

隨著心理需求的發展,人們對于藝術的追求比重開始大于對宗教的膜拜,最終發展成以審美為主要目的的藝術,從而擺脫了宗教的束縛,也擯棄了宗教意識,成為宣揚人自身生命態度的載體,再到后來“人文主義”的復活,藝術最終從對上天的關注轉向了對人的關注,人的世界取代了神的世界,藝術從宗教中脫離出來。宗教藝術成為了獨特的藝術。

一、傳統陶瓷中的儒教文化

中國傳統陶瓷在其漫長的發展歷程中,留下了儒教文化深深的烙印。儒家思想貫穿于中國二千多年的封建社會,已滲透進國人的骨子里,對中國人的倫理道德觀、審美觀、生活方式等方面產生了深刻的影響。儒教的基本教義是:敬天、奉祖、孝親、忠信、仁義、崇禮、性善。儒教最根本的思想是禮和樂。中國傳統陶瓷中的日用瓷中有很多反映儒教文化的器皿與陳設品,我們可以看到儒教文化中的吉祥、和合、中庸等思想。如丹鳳朝陽(鳳凰、太陽)、龍鳳呈祥(龍鳳紋)、六合同春(鹿、鶴、梅花)、多壽多福(蝙蝠、桃子)等祥瑞題材??鬃犹岢觥叭省钡膶W說,儒家思想往往以玉比喻人的許多美德,孔子曾論玉說:“夫玉者,君子比德焉”。宋代的龍泉青瓷達到了青瓷釉色與質地之美頂峰,是巧奪天工的人工制造的青玉。龍泉窯的類玉青瓷是儒教文化思想的一個典型代表。所以類玉瓷器一直以來都深受古人的尊崇。

二、中國傳統陶瓷藝術中的道教文化

道教是中國的本土宗教,其對于中國人的世界觀、人生觀、以及生活方式等都有比較大的影響,道教崇尚“天人合一”,認為“天地萬物皆以無為本”,人們崇尚自然、追求寧靜、超然物外。中國豐富的傳統陶瓷藝術中蘊含有大量道教文化,在中國傳統陶瓷發展的不同階段皆有所體現。

首先,在意蘊上,宋代的陶瓷藝術深受其影響。宋瓷改唐三彩的富麗華美之風,追求一種淡泊、平淡的風格,簡潔優美,很少有繁縟的裝飾,主要以單色釉為主,這充分體現了宋代陶瓷沉靜雅素的美學品質。宋代人喜歡賞玩最具“天人合一”境界的宋汝瓷。以道家之“大象無形,大音希聲”等理念為指引,以“五色使人目盲”等思想為評判的標準。

其次,在造型上,中國傳統陶瓷藝術中有各種道教文化器物,如葫蘆瓶、香爐、八卦瓶、八卦碗等。另外,還有很多道家人物瓷雕、塑像,如八仙、南極仙翁、福祿壽三星等。特別是明代,由于嘉靖皇帝對道教的尊崇,這時出現了大量帶有道教文化色彩的陶瓷禮器。在嘉靖時期的《江西大志》中有這樣的記載:“嘉靖七年以前,案毀不可考。十年磁碟、鐘一萬一千,爵二百。十五年青花白地福壽康寧花鐘一千八百,十六年爵盞二百七十”。

再次,在裝飾上,很多中國傳統陶瓷藝術器物上帶有明顯的道教色彩。如人物有八仙過海、麻姑獻壽等;植物有仙桃、靈芝、萬年松等;動物有云鶴、飛馬、白鹿、麒麟等;除此之外,還有祥云、八卦等??傊?道教素材經常作為中國傳統陶瓷創作的題材,從中也可以看出道教對中國傳統陶瓷藝術也有一定的影響。

三、中國傳統陶瓷藝術中的佛教文化

篇4

關 鍵 詞:藝術教育 中國傳統文化 師道 孝道 經典 內學

當代中國的藝術教育,應根植于本民族傳統文化這塊土壤。這是藝術教育發展、成長的源泉,離開它,藝術教育就會變成無源之水、無本之木。各種不同的藝術教育模式,不管是舶來的,還是本土的,無論是學習、繼承還是發展,我們本身應具有一個較高的視點去評判。要有深厚的文化底蘊,否則舶來的東西就難辨良莠,或導致另一個結果,即盲目地排外而妄自尊大。

由于歷史原因,我們今天的藝術教育出現了偏頗,即重技藝而輕人文。我們今天的藝術教育與傳統的人文教育產生了嚴重的斷層,這足以導致人的精神領域極其淺薄與蒼白,加之西方現代工業文明的介入,我們正在加速度地蛻變為“香蕉人”,而我們的藝術教育也增加了“功利”與“競爭”的傾向。過分重功利就會輕仁義,人與人的過度競爭會導致社會動蕩不安,國與國的過度競爭最終的結果將是共同毀滅。

一、東、西方兩種不同文化的比較

近現代西方注重的是科技教育。在科技進步帶來經濟發展的同時,也帶來一系列社會問題,如犯罪率上升、環境污染等。核能的開發本來是可以造福于人類的,但我們今天卻隨時都要遭受核戰爭的威脅。因此,人們形容科技是一把雙刃劍,盲目地發展科技無異于盲人騎瞎馬。

近現代西方注重的是競爭教育。孩子從小就被灌輸競爭意識,保護自己的個人利益。而中國傳統的教育是教人禮讓、互助合作、共存共榮。中國古人并非不懂科技,但更懂得科技發展的弊端,因此,大力提倡發展人文教育,認為這樣,社會才能長治久安。當前是科技發展的時代,我們無意開歷史的倒車,只是盡可能地讓科技發展進入一個良性循環狀態??萍己盟埔黄ヒ榜R,需要一名睿智的騎手去駕馭。中國傳統文化在這一方面可以發揮其積極作用。中國傳統文化是人類智慧的結晶。我們并非基于一種民族情結去贊美和宣揚自己的文化,也并非基于一種復古的情結而厚古薄今。中國傳統文化中的典集稱為經典,“經”是縱貫通達,“典”是典范、標準,古今一成不變之真理,可以超越過去、現在和未來。

二、 藝術教育包含在中國傳統文化的范疇之內

馬一浮先生在《論西來學術亦統于六藝》文中曾提到:“六藝不唯統攝中土一切學術,亦可統攝現在西來一切學術。舉其大概言之,如自然科學可統于《易》,社會科學或人文科學可統于《春秋》……文學、藝術統于《詩》《樂》?!彼囆g教育依托于中國的傳統文化,不僅可使其理論更加完備、深廣,還可使其教育理念達到一個更高、更新的層面,在其空洞的“形式”中攝入更多的人文色彩,使其能夠更多地關注人本身、人類社會以及人類的前途命運。

三、藝術教育是中國傳統文化的再現

藝術教育不應被認為僅僅是畫畫、唱歌、彈琴等技藝的傳授,藝術教育是要把人類最高的智慧、德能與才藝以藝術的形式表達出來造福于人類。

中國歷史中的繪畫、雕塑、戲劇等大多展示、宣揚的主題思想是“忠、孝、仁、義”,在娛樂之余不失其“成教化、助人倫”的社會教育功用。無論是過去的君主時代還是現在的民主時代,藝術教育也要承擔起一種責任與義務來改善我們的身、心、世界。

中國傳統文化的典集又可稱為內典,內典即是內學之典集,其中所盛載的智慧與德能來自心靈的最深處,是人心本來具有而非從外學來的一種親證的現量境界,不是一種想象、推理構建的理論。通過這些典集可以開啟我們內心深處處于休眠狀態的智慧,這才是真正意義上的“啟發式教學”。中國傳統文化也就是國學,被馬一浮先生稱之為“六藝之學”。馬一浮先生在《論六藝統攝于一心》的文章中寫道:“舉網者必提其綱,振衣者必挈其領。”先要識得綱領,然后可及其條目。六藝之教可以統攝一切學術,這是一個總綱領,真是“范圍天地之化而不過,曲成萬物而不一遺。學者須知六藝本是吾人性分內所具的事,不是圣人旋安排出來。吾人性量本來廣大,性德本來具足,幫六藝之道即是此性德中自然流出的,性外無道也。”藝術也本是人心中分內的事。藝術教育與中國傳統文化也可以說是一種表里的關系。藝術教育中的“教育”本身就蘊含著中國傳統文化的精神。藝術教育中的“教”,左邊是“孝”,意思是說老與子、上一代與下一代是一體;右邊是“文”,其意為文以載“道”。教育是師道,其根本是孝道。中國傳統文化的根本就是師道與孝道??鬃釉唬骸爸居诘?,據于德,依于仁,游于藝?!钡朗侨松钪娴恼胬?、規律。在人與人之間表現為五倫十義,即“父子、夫婦、兄弟、君臣、朋友”,人與人的關系應以父慈子孝、兄友弟恭、夫義婦順、長惠幼序、朋誼友信、君敬臣忠等關系為原則。思想、行為不違背自然規律,并把這種品德保持、發揚、增長就是“育”,久而久之會有所得,德者,得也。人與人的關系依止于“仁”,仁者愛人,像愛護自己一樣愛護他人,這種愛是“仁愛、博愛”,而非貪愛,這種博大而崇高的品質正是出自這樣的文化背景的熏陶,這種品質可物化、外現于各種藝術表現形式。

四、種瓜得瓜、種豆得豆

藝術教育以人為本,首先要確立一種正確的人生觀和藝術價值觀。藝術不僅僅是個人的事,它的出現對于社會人群會產生不同程度的影響,這也是藝術教育首要關注的事情。高雅的藝術對于陶冶人的情操,提升人生的境界是大有益處的。藝術即使不能起到“成教化、助人倫”的社會功用,至少也不應是“精神污染”而有害于社會人群,何去何從基本上取決于藝術教育的導向。

中國傳統文化在人類文明史上的地位與價值是毋庸置疑的。持反對意見者不外乎兩個原因:其一是對于什么是中國傳統文化缺乏深刻、正確的認識和理解,其二是由于年代久遠,必然會產生一些流弊,這是人的原因,并不代表主流文化,且不可因人故而廢其法。儒、釋、道三家構成了中國傳統文化的主流,三者之間名詞、名相雖有異,但理無二致。南懷謹先生把儒家比喻成開糧店的,把道家比喻成開藥店的,把佛家比喻成開百貨店的?!叭濉弊旨慈诵枰叭省?,就像人需要糧食一樣重要;得了病不能不吃藥,此病是不懂得愛物的“心病”,物是指我們的生活環境,再廣一點如山河、大地、宇宙萬物,“物”與我們本來就是不可分割的一體;百貨店自然無所不包。三家的典集稱為“經典”,這些典集并非是某個人的學術觀點,所述都是古圣先賢之法,都是真性的流露。真性也叫真心,心、佛、眾生不二,否定了經典也就等于否定了我們自己本身。

以傳統文化注入藝術教育,并作為其精神內核,“真、善、美、慧”四字足以概括?!罢妗笔钦鎸嵵?,是人生宇宙的真象;“善”是完善,我們內心深處本來具足無限完美的智慧、德能與才藝(美、慧自然在其中)?!罢?、善、美、慧”這種教育理念完全可以憑借經典的引導開發出來。

五、傳統文化中的修學方式給予藝術教育的啟示

從前有成就的讀書人大致可分為兩類,一類是博學多聞;另一類是一門專精,眾多的“典集”只學一部,一部經通達,部部經都通達。全部心思用于一門,久而久之心就定了,由定能萌生智慧,這種智慧深藏于心靈的深處,不是從外學來的,所以這種學習方法稱為內學,經典又可稱為內典。經典就是心靈深處智慧的外現,形于外的經典又可啟發內在本有的智慧。這種本有的智慧也就是《三字經》中提到的“人之初,性本善”中的“善”,善是完善,是本有而非從外學來的。這種優良的教學方式完全可以給我們的藝術教育一種新的啟迪。它不但能使學生減輕學習負擔,而且能開發、增長智慧,的確是事半功倍。這種教學尤其在人生的早期階段效果會更佳。人在少兒期,心靈是較為純凈的,接受外來事物快速。十二三歲以前是“黃金季節”,一旦錯過甚為可惜。近現代以來,我們不知有多少代人在重演這樣的悲劇 ,然而幸運者也不乏其人,如老舍、矛盾、魯迅、朱自清等一代有成就的文人,他們的白話文文章寫得好,都是從小讀古文讀出來的。清代的金農,五十歲才開始學畫,能名留史冊,全憑其深厚的國學基礎;潘天壽在黃賓虹先生簡介中提到:“先生幼年穎異,篤學好問,曾延宿儒館于家,弱冠游學金陵揚州,得廣交時賢文藝之士。能琴劍,擅詩古文辭治印,兼攻經史與圖釋老氏及金石文字之學,均深有造詣。”由此可見,黃賓虹先生的藝術成就無不得益于國學淵源。從小受過傳統教育的有成就的人不在少數,而從小讀白話文長大的敢稱大家的又有幾人?不同的教育理念造就不同的時代與人,如果今天的藝術教育能從傳統的教育理念中獲取更多的借鑒,對于促進藝術教育的進步與全面發展,提高全民素質有著不可估量的作用。

參考文獻

[1]《論語》,朱熹注,(濟南)齊魯書社,1996年版

[2]《論語》,徐志剛譯注,(北京)人民文學出版社,1997年版

[3]蔣金德等主編:《馬一浮集》,(杭州)浙江教育出版社

[4]南懷謹著:《中國佛教發展史略》,(上海)復旦大學出版社,1996年版

[5]《四書五經》,管曙光等主編:(北京)宗教文化出版社,1999年版

[6]南懷謹著:《原本大學微言》,(北京)世界知識出版社,1998年版

[7]南懷謹著:《論語別裁》,(上海)復旦大學出版社,1997年版

篇5

2. Literature review 2

2.1 Conceptions of relative words 2

2.1.1 Definition of body language 2

2.1.2 Conception of culture 3

2.2 Overseas and domestic literature review on body language 3

2.2.1 Overseas literature review on body language 4

2.2.2 Domestic literature review on body language 4

3. Comparison of body language in Chinese and American cultures 5

3.1 Same body language with the same meaning 6

3.2 Same body language with different meanings 7

3.3 Different body language with the same meaning 11

3.4 Unique body language exists in Chinese and American culture respectively 13

4. How to improve the ability of intercultural communication 14

5. Conclusion 15

Acknowledgements 16

References 17

1. Introduction

Speaking of “Body Language” in a board sense, there are in English such expressions as body movement, body gesture, body behavior, etc [1]13,[2]4. A psychologist proposed a formula: the total impact of a message = 7% verbal + 38% vocal + 55% facial expressions and behaviors [3]15.

Nowadays, with the rapid development of economy as well as science and technology, the world is becoming smaller and smaller, and the communication between people from different countries with different cultural backgrounds is increasing [3]19, especially that between people from China and America. Since interpretations of body language vary tremendously from culture to culture, it is a necessity to obtain the ability to understand body language while communicating with people from different countries with different culture. Certainly, there were many previous studies made by scholars on body language. However, most of their researches lay emphasis on the differences of body language between China and western countries instead of those between China and America. Meanwhile, few focus on the history and culture roots of body language and the influence of verbal language on body language. Therefore, the thesis is intended to focus on the similarities and differences of body language including posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye contacts under different cultural backgrounds in China and America so as to enable readers to comprehensively understand the exact meanings of body language and to know the corresponding cultural background and social-cultural characteristics of the two countries.

The thesis is mainly composed of five chapters. The first Chapter serves as the brief introduction of the whole thesis; The second Chapter presents the definition of body language, culture and the literature review of body language abroad and in China; The third chapter focuses on the similarities and differences of body language under different cultural backgrounds in China and America and the corresponding reasons of history, culture and language for those similarities and differences will be analyzed at the same time. The fourth chapter introduces several tips for improving the ability of cross-cultural communication between the two countries. And the last part summarizes the whole content of this paper and restates the importance of body language in cross-cultural communication.

2. Literature review

The observation of body language is important to an effective listener because it communicates what is the most important to the speaker. When a person is reluctant to put his feelings into words, or has repressed his feelings to the extent that he is not consciously aware of his feelings, then his nonverbal language usually indicates his feelings. Now, to have a better knowledge of body language, the author here will first introduce the literature review on body language as follows.

2.1 Conceptions of relative words

When communicating with a person from different cultures, it is extremely important to possess the ability to understand the exact meanings of the body language he uses. Otherwise, it will cause unnecessary misunderstandings and even lead to some trouble. Body language has a close relationship with culture. Thus, before we come to the study on body language under different cultural backgrounds in China and America, we should first of all have a clear idea about the definitions of relative words: body language, and culture.

2.1.1 Definition of body language

Body language is a term for forms of communication using body movements or gestures instead of sounds, or other forms of oral communication [4]25. It is often called kinesics, composed not only of gestures and posture, but also facial expressions and eye contacts [5]23. Gestures refer to the movement of hands or arms to express the meaning of a verbal message which is regarded as the central part of our body language. Posture is the general way of carrying out one’s body, especially the head, shoulders and back when walking, standing, squatting, sitting or lying. Eye contact is a very important part in body language which refers to the study of messages expressed by eyes, including eye contact, eye movements, staring, gaze, blin ks and pupil dilation. The face serves as the most expressive function in our body and it can give us some information about one’s character.

It should be mentioned that since diverse and complex factors are involved in the study of body language, a considerable amount of academic arguments exist concerning which definition of body language is the most valid and workable. Some scholars claim that body language is the language without words; others give a similar statement that body language indicates all communicative symbols except oral speech. Besides the above mentioned definitions, Samovar and Porter (1995) have made some attempts on a more specific and vivid definition of body language like this: Body language is the socially, biologically, psychologically or culturally framed exchange of valuable messages which are not verbally spoken out but conveyed by the body movements, body gestures, symbols or relevant context and surrounding environment etc 143.

2.1.2 Conception of culture

    It is difficult to find even a single definition of culture on which scholars may have agreements since culture is really a very large and evasive concept which is very difficult to define. The anthropologists define it as: common knowledge, perceptions and values that constitute the foundation of social, economical and religious institutions in a society (Svanberg & Runblom, 1988) [7]8. It is said that there have been at least over 150 definitions on culture, but none of them seems to be able to tell us everything about culture [8]14.

But, simply put, “culture” refers to a group or a community with which we share common experiences that shape the way we understand the world. Most professionals view culture as being the sum total of beliefs, rules, techniques, institutions, and artefacts that characterize human beings [8]3. In other words, culture consists of socially created and learned patterns of behaviour shared by members of a given society—a unique lifestyle of a particular group of people.

From above, we know that culture is the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes one group or category of people from another [7]16. Since China is a developing country while America is a developed country, they have their unique styles in the traditions of culture and customs. They are different in many aspects of their life and production which produce a big influence on their body language. When coming to the definition of culture, we should take the cultural backgrounds of two countries’ history, customs and literature into consideration; meantime, we also should take the cultural factors into consideration when we are taking part in cross-cultural communication. By acquiring the basic theoretical conceptions of body language and culture, we will go further for the study on the meanings of body gestures under different cultural backgrounds in China and America in the next part.

2.2 Overseas and domestic literature review on body language

This part concerns literature review on body language made by scholars in China and America. Body language, as a communicative method, has a long history and it can be assumed that the history of body language is longer than any other natural languages. Body language is the subject which has received the most research and the greatest amount of public attention during recent years.

2.2.1 Overseas literature review on body language

Body language may date back to Aristotle, who had studied the expressions of actions. And Darwin’s Expressions of Humans and Animals published in 1872 can be regarded as the initial study of body language 26. These two books are regarded as two milestones in the decade.

The 1960s witnessed a nuclear explosion of studies on body language. There were extensive studies on specific areas of body including eye behaviors, personal space, body movements and body gestures. Dr. Edward T. Hall, professor of anthropology at Northwestern University, went into the cross-cultural perspective of proteomics. Paul Kerman and Wallace Friesen have developed a specific system of classifying nonverbal languages in terms of function in the book The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior [11]20 , which provided insights on the origin, usage, and coding of nonverbal behavior.

The 1970s made deep exploration on the aspect of body language from different perspectives, among which was Julius Fast’s Body Language in 1973 in which he explained by presenting interesting instances the meaning of such nonverbal behaviors as gestures, facial expressions, postures, and distance between interlocutors[12]14. In 1970, Ray Birdwhistell coined the term “kinesics”—the systematic study of how human beings communicate through body movements and gestures—in his masterpiece Kinesics and Context: Essay on Body Motion Communication.

2.2.2 Domestic literature review on body language

Chinese researchers have made a great contribution to the study on body language. The study on body language in China originated in the 1970s and prospered in the 1980s 5.

From above literature review on body language, we can clearly get that scholars have made various studies on body language. However, most of the researches laid emphasis on the differences of body language while the similarities were ignored. Furthermore, most of the studies focus on the phenomena of the differences instead of the real reasons of those similarities and differences, such as the differences between history, culture, traditions, customs and expressions of verbal language, etc.

Therefore, the author will focus on the comparison of similarities and differences of body language, including posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye contacts, between China and America and analyze the reasons of the differences with case analysis and comparison method as well. And in the process of this study, in order to thoroughly compare the similarities and differences of body language between the two countries, the author will analyze the above mentioned four categories of body language one by one from the following aspects: (1) the same body language with the same meaning; (2) the same body language with different meanings; (3) different body language with the same meaning; (4) the special body language exists in Chinese and American culture respectively.

3. Comparison of body language in Chinese and American cultures

Body language can serve for communication which can make people communicate very well and smoothly. It is much related to culture. Particular body language and the meaning of body language are largely depended on cultural variations 9. From this we can see that it is important to study body language under the different cultural backgrounds. Besides, we should also have a clear understanding of the deep cultural reasons which cause these differences in body gestures.

In this part, the author elaborates the similarities and differences of body language, including posture, gestures, eye contacts, and facial expressions with case analysis and comparison method from the following four aspects so as to find out the culture root and social-cultural characteristics.

3.1 Same body language with the same meaning

Human beings have thousands of thousands of body gestures. Although different people live in different places, speak different languages, wear different clothes, people share many similarities in daily life as well, for example, happiness, anger, sadness. So it is not difficult to understand that people share a lot of similar body language which expresses the same meaning. In this part, the author discusses posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye contacts th at convey the same meaning in Chinese and American culture and analyzes the reasons as well.

Posture refers to the general way people carry out their body, and it can be divided into three categories: standing, bent-knee positions and lying [15]36. The same posture can be seen in the same situation in different countries. No matter in America or in China, it is easy to observe from TV and movies that individuals of higher status usually use a relaxed postural style, while those who are in a lower status are always in a upright and tense postural style since the “lower status” must show his respect to the senior.

Generally speaking, Gestures refer to specific body movements that carry meanings. Gestures are closely related to speech, illustrating or supplementing it. Gestures carry a great deal of meanings, some of which mean the same in China and America. When they are interpreted by Chinese and Americans respectively, there will not be any problem in understanding each other when communicating. For instance, both Chinese and Americans nod head up and down to mean “yes”, and they  shake head from side to side to mean “no”; move hands from side to side to convey the meaning of saying goodbye to somebody; applaud to show approval of a performance. What is more, touch is one of the most fundamental forms of body gestures, like our oral speech, carries messages about what we are thinking and feeling. Touch is the earliest means we have to make contacts with others. Touch can indicate many things, including affection, aggression, sympathy and even the status or relationship which exists between people [15]25.

Face is the most expressive part of our body. The sayings “one’s face is the mirror of one’s soul,” and “The face tells the secret” tell us the importance of facial expressions. During interpersonal communication, we depend heavily on facial cues when making important judgements. Facial movements can express emotion. Research shows that seven basic emotions have been expressed the same. They are happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, disgust and interest. In China and America, people almost express the above basic emotions with same facial expressions. So we can easily guess the meaning of a person from his or her face although we don’t understand each other’s language.

Eye contact plays an important role in human interactions. People can use eye contact to regulate communication, convey emotions, and indicate degrees of attentiveness, interest, and arousal. It was estimated that we spend approximately 45 percent of our time looking at others’ eyes [16]5. As to eye contacts, Chinese and Americans share some similarities too. For example, when we are in different emotions, such as happy, angry or sad, the expression in people’s eyes will change in accordance with the emotions we are in. Sometimes we control our facial expressions to hide our feelings and we can successfully do that while the expression in our eyes will reveal the secrets since it is too difficult to be controlled. In our daily life, we can not only guess a person’s happiness, anger and sadness from his or her eyes, but we can feel whether he is confident or shy, he is pessimistic or optimistic, he is kind or cruel, and so on. So Eyes are called the windows of man’s heart for they can reveal the implication at a deeper level that spoken language cannot express.

Why do body gestures have the same meaning even in China and America which have their own unique cultural origins and historical characteristics? The reason is easy to understand. It is the mutual knowledge and cognition in people’s life and production during the development of human’s society which offers the answer. What is more, both Chinese and Americans face life and death, love and hate, hope and fear in life. All people’s basic needs and philosophies are similar, even when their expressions is clouded and confused by racial, cultural or political trappings [15]19. And it is these cultural common characteristics upon which we can build understanding, respect and communication. To some extent, we human beings sometimes may have something in common in nonverbal expressions with gorillas, let alone people from different cultures. There are many differences between China and America, such as culture, history, religion, race, color of skin, etc, but just like many idioms we share in life, for example, “love me, love my dog”, “strike while the iron is hot”, “look before you leap” and so on, we share many body gestures in life too.

3.2 Same body language with different meanings

Even body language has a cultural accent, and because of the cultural differences in China and America, the same body gesture differs from each other in its meanings in some circumstances. Just like the saying goes “do as the Romans do&r dquo;, it is necessary to pay attention to such differences in the same body gesture to avoid misunderstandings. Here the author studies the differences of posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye contacts in Chinese and American cultures respectively and ultimately to cultivate their inside resources and reasons.

1. Posture

   There are cultural differences as far as gait is concerned in China and America. For example, Chinese people may regard Americans’ big strides when they walk as being arrogant, and Americans may consider Chinese people’s gait shy and timid. This reason of this difference is simply that Americans need more space than Chinese do since American culture emphasizes individualism while Chinese culture stresses modesty. Also, Standing with arms akimbo is common in America with neutral meaning. Women may do this posture to show their impatience. However, this posture in China means a signal to protect oneself from being approached.

   Sitting posture is a constant source of cultural misunderstandings. In America where being casual and friendly is valued, consciously or unconsciously people often fall into chairs or slouch. However, in China, a slouching posture is a signal of bad manners on many occasions, for Chinese value proper stance and sitting position.

When combined with cultural backgrounds in China and America, it is not difficult to understand the reasons for all these differences. People may note the values, norms, and beliefs or subjective culture of a particular group reflected in the nonverbal codes of the two nations. Americans emphasize informality and seem to have a loose and easy stance, but Chinese ancient philosophy values a rigid, erect and quiet stance. As an old saying: Stand as straight as a pine and sit as upright as a bell.

2. Gestures

Gestures are mainly connected with moving of hands or arms to convey some certain verbal information and emotion. People from China and America may have their own particular gestures, and even the same gesture may have its separate significance for Chinese and Americans in certain contexts because of their different cultures.

In America, snapping fingers is to cause someone’s attention, whereas in China it is considered very rude and ill-mannered. In the United States, using one’s thumb and index finger to make a circle while extending the others has the meaning of “ok or excellent”; while in China, it stands “zero”. Chinese may shake the hand with the palm turning downward to ask somebody to come, while Americans interpret this gesture as saying goodbye or asking somebody to go away [14]15. In American culture, stamping one’s foot means impatience, but in China it conveys anger, frustration and remorse. Moreover, in Chinese culture, using the index finger up to tip one’s own nose means that “I did this or it is me”, while for Americans they will think this to be ridiculous or funny.

Touch is more acceptable on Chinese campus than American campus, although both China and America are classified as non-contact culture 20.

There are still many other gestures varying culturally in this part. For instance, almost everyone has the experience of pointing a way for others. From childhood, Chinese are taught that it is impolite to use forefinger to point at things. This conception is reflected in the Chinese idiom “指桑罵槐” and “指手畫腳” which convey the negative meaning [7]16. Since we have known the different meanings of the same body gesture in China and America, now, let’s come to the reasons for these differences. We all know that in China, culture is mainly connected with Han culture. Chinese culture emphasizes collectivism under the influence of Confucianism and Buddhism while American culture advocates individualism and independence which is clearly reflected in the different meanings of touch. That is to say, a country’s religion, economy and literature, to some extent, have a deep effect on the meaning o f body language. Therefore, we should not only learn the meaning of body language, but also learn the cultural backgrounds that hind behind it.

3. Facial expressions

Facial expressions are connected with culture. There are differences between Chinese and Americans in facial expressions. Facial movements can express one’s emotions. Research shows that seven basic emotions have been expressed the same by facial expressions [20]11. However, the meaning of facial expressions differs in the values of culture and differs in the context of interpersonal communication.

Many examples can be found in daily life. In America, children often make facial expressions when they are disapproving of or questioning actions of their parents, while in China, children who do this are thought to disrespect their parents. As for the relationship between children and parents in a family, being obedient is what Chinese parents hope their children to do, while American parents seem partial to respect their children’s own choices, which is well reflected in the expressions of body language. So it is difficult for Americans and Chinese to understand each other’s ways of education. The main reason is that the difference in family education lies in the differences in their cultures.

In American culture, people are willing to express attitude and emotions. The American teachers like to open a friendly environment in his class to make his class more relaxing and interesting. They are more willingly to use body language frequently, such as making face and rising eyebrow, while the teachers in China tend to control their feelings or cover their emotions and attitude. The reason for this difference is that Chinese are deeply influenced by Buddhism which has the spirit of being earnest in front of others. Therefore, the American teacher’s class is more vivid to the Chinese students compared with the Chinese ones.

Because of the different understandings of the same facial expression, people may misunderstand each other in daily life. A typical example is that even laughter has the potential to cause misunderstanding. An American who fell off his bike would be very angry when bystanders laughed while Chinese man would not be angry at the laughter, because in Chinese culture the laughter conveyed sympathy or understanding, but not ridicule [20]20. From this example we can see how important to learn the meaning of the same body language in different countries.

4. Eye contacts

Every culture has its unique social rules governing eye contact, and because of the cultural differences, Chinese and Americans use eye contact in different ways. During conversations Chinese do not have much eye contact because they believe that prolonged eye contact is rude, threatening and disrespectful. It is a symbol of bad behaviour. Children are often told not to look downward when talking to the elders, indicating the attitude of submitting and respecting. While American adults demand that children look at them while they are speaking, for the reason that in a conversation too little eye contact may be interpreted negatively since lack of eye contact reveals one’s lack of interest, honesty, or one is inattention, or even mistrust. One more example, in Chinese culture, looking at something or somebody with fixed gaze means curious and sometimes surprise; while according to American culture, it indicates impoliteness which makes people embarrassing and uneasy [17]9.

Why does the same eye contact mean different in China and America? Each of the two countries has its own unique history, culture and customs which have a big influence on the meaning of body language. For example, in China, people advocate respecting the old and loving the young, while American people advocate being equal which may explain why there is different meanings in eye contact. As a result, we should lay emphasis on the study of a country’s history and culture which make a difference in acquiring a foreign language and improving the ability of cross-cultural communication.

Chinese and American have different ideas or attitude toward the same thing which is also a reflection of the difference between two cultures. So it is the two different psychological characteristics that lead to different understandings of the same body gesture. In other words, we can say that it is the different ideas and attitudes which contribute to the different views on the same thing. In a word, the different expressions and the difference between the cultures are the main reasons of this phenomenon. Therefore, learning a second language is more than learning the language itself, it is also a process of learning its culture and history.

3.3 Different body language with the same meaning

Though the culture differences exist in China and America, different body gestures have the same meaning in some circumstances. Since people in different countries with different cultural backg rounds may use different body gestures to convey some certain similar meanings, so do Chinese and Americans. Since the differences in posture and eye contacts in this aspect are rare, the following part will focus on posture and gestures with the same meaning and their analysis.

1. Posture

Besides the universal ones, each culture has its cultural cues in the determination of posture and sitting habits which offer insight into the deep cultural recourses. This is true in Chinese and American cultures in which exist many differences in posture.

In China, both men and women are likely to stand when they are introduced to others, which mean being respectful to other people, while in America, to show this respect to others, women need not stand up except when the man’s social status is very high. This may be for the reason that Chinese culture advocates being immodest and respectful to others and American culture values that ladies first.

    The example mentioned above is very interesting actually if you compare the two cultures carefully. China has a long history of feudal society, so the social status of women was much lower than that of men in the past. After the establishment of new China, the women have been liberated and the social status of women is higher than before or is almost as high as that of men. In some parts of China, especially in some south-east cities of China, the status of the wife is even higher than that of husband in a family. This can be reflected in many aspects. The typical example is that the wife who governs the budget of a family instead of the husband. Although it emphasizes “equality” very much in America, actually it is also not easy to realize, for example, after a woman’s marriage, her family name will be replaced by her husband’s family name which means the wife’s social status is mainly decided by that of her husband since the wife has already lost her original family name. At the same time, since American culture has been greatly influenced by that of Britain and the British has its unique “gentlemen” culture, so it is understandable that American gentlemen advocate “ladies first”.

2. Gestures

We all know the culture differences cause different understandings on the same body gesture. In China, if one put the hand toward someone with the fingers downward waving several times, he just wants the person to come to him; while in America, in order to convey the meaning of asking someone to come, one should put the hand toward someone with the centre of the palm upward, shaking the index finger back and front. What is more, Chinese and American use their fingers to determine the number in a different way. For Chinese, “one” is used thumb to count, while in America, they use the index finger to count the number of “one”. Besides, the Chinese way of counting on the finger is contrary to that of American way. The former is by bending the fingers from a stretched palm. The latter is by stretching the fingers from a clenched fist. In China, the gesture of forefinger of one hand stretched, tip touches one’s own face several times quickly, similar to scratching, but with the forefinger upright conveys that “shame on you”. In American culture, to express the same meaning, they would use forefinger of each hand stretched, palms down before somebody’s body, and one forefinger makes several brushing moving over other forefinger.

Actually it is not difficult to understand why Chinese and American express the same meaning with different gestures. For example, “I am up to my throat” is used to describe a person is full in English, so an American often puts a hand on his throat to mean that. In China, when a person is hungry, he will say “My belly (stomach) is hungry”, so when he is full, he will pat his stomach slightly to convey the meaning that he is full. Actually, there are many examples like this in our daily life. Therefore, we can see that body language has a close relationship with a country’s culture. Exactly, our body gesture is another expressive form of our language, while body language is more vivid and brings much fun compared with language.

Although researchers estimate that the human face can display over 250,000 different expressions [21]10, it is still very difficult to find that different facial expressions mean the same in China and America since they share more in common while this phenomenon can be found between the above two countries and Japan. People often feel difficult to understand or wonder why the Japanese smiles when he is embarrassing, angry or sad. In Japanese culture, smile can be used in many occasions to express different meanings. Americans prefer to smile towards strangers in public to show politeness or friendliness, Japanese smile a lot too while Chinese may not have any facial expression which does not mean impo liteness or unfriendliness. As to eye contacts, since few examples can be found, we have to omit this part.

3.4 Unique body language exists in Chinese and American culture respectively

Since each culture is unique, each culture has its unique body language. There is some certain body language which just exists in one culture, but no other equivalent in the other culture.

There is a lot of unique body language in Chinese culture. In Chinese culture, delivering things to customers or other people with one’s two hands is to show respect to them; when someone pours a cup of tea or a glass of wine for the visitor, the visitor shall open one of or both hands to show thanks; in Chinese culture, a fist with the little finger expanded show the meaning of the last one. Upraised forefinger of each hand coming together in front of the boy until the two touch has the meaning that the boy and the girl is in love or they are a good match. The above body language cannot be found in American culture or other cultures.

At the same time, there are body gestures which only exist in American culture which Chinese do not accept. Sucking nails is to say that one is in the state of a big mental burden or very worried and do not know what to do; braving the nose with one’s thumb and the other four gingers bent actively is to show challenge and defiance; putting one’s arms on the chest with fists clenched and thumbs down, hemming a few times is to show one’s strong objection to the idea or suggestion. American individuals value privacy, and men always maintain a distance of 45-80centimeters between them when they are talking. Males rarely touch each other, except for a brief but firm handshake. They certainly never hold or sit with arms around one another 18. In American culture, shrugging the shoulders can indicate either a feeling of helplessness or of unconcern: “Don't ask me, I don't know what to say,” or, “I couldn't help it.” But Chinese people never do that.

Since the development of history, culture, politics and economy in China is totally different from those in America, the two countries have their unique traditions and customs. And all of these differences have been reflected on various aspects of people’ life including body language. Also, we should always keep in mind that it is the variety of culture that makes the world so colorful.

4. How to improve the ability of intercultural communication

It has been recognized that body language is an essential part in communication process. “He that has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself that no mortal can keep a secret. If his lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips; betrayals ooze out of him at every pore.” People from different cultures have their own cultural perceptions, beliefs, values, and social customs which greatly determine their communicative ways. Since body language plays an important role in cross-cultural communication, it is very important to grasp body language of another country if we want to communicate with it.

Therefore, in order to improve the ability to communicate with American people, we must follow the tips as shown: (1) be familiar with the body language in America, especially the body language that has different meanings and some special body language; (2) understand the deep cultural backgrounds of body language in America and the discrepancies between Chinese and American cultures; (3) fully respect the body language in American culture and try to learn to communicate with their body language, especially those special ones; (4) in cross-cultural communication, we should publicize the Chinese body language and the corresponding culture to Americans. For the purpose of further understanding the body language in American culture, we need to improve the cognition of the importance of body language from the perspective of culture.

It is not very difficult to communicate with another culture successfully without appropriate manners and behavior. Therefore, knowing more about the culture, and body language in China and America is a very important task when studying English. The learning of English is not only a process of the learning of spoken English and written English but also a process of learning the corresponding body language.

5. Conclusion

Through the above comparison and analysis on body language and its associated culture in China and America, we can learn that there are many similarities and differences between the body language of China and America: (1) “the same body language express the same meaning” can be found a lot in both cultures; (2) “the same body language express different meanings&rd quo; can be commonly seen, which exists in posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye contracts; (3) “different body language express the same meaning” is less common, which mainly exists in posture and gestures; (4) Both Chinese culture and American one have their own unique body language. As to the reasons of the similarities and differences between the two cultures, the differences in the two countries’ history, culture, habits and language mainly cause the differences in the meanings of body language and the common features in the human community in human’s life and production are the major reasons of the similarities.

Through this dissertation, on the one hand, the body language of the two countries has been compared, on the other hand, the main reasons for the differences in body language between China and America has been analyzed. But the purpose of this paper is to increase students’ awareness of intercultural communication and reaching the aim of a successful and effective communication. So in the process of learning English, we shall pay more attention to or perhaps learn to use American’s body language when we communicating in English. Furthermore, when in cross-culture communication, we will never neglect the cultural differences.

 

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Lecturer Li Jiangxia, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation smoothly.

I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have given me a hand when I was faced with some problems. They not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books.

My greatest personal debt is to my beloved family, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me. I gratefully acknowledge the help of them, and for their loving considerations and great confidence in me through all these days.

The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.

 

References

. Science and Technology Information, 2008.

[2] Cohen L, Manion L. Research Methods in Education[M]. 4th ed. London: Routledge, 1983.

[3] Quirk R, Greenbaum S, Leech G, Svartviken J. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language[M]. London: Longman, 1985.

[4] 嚴愛梅. 小學英語教學中的師生體態語研究[D]. 武漢: 華中師范大學, 2007.

. Science and Technology Information, 2008.

. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1951.

[7] 于志浩. 論外語課堂教學中跨文化非語言交際能力的培養[D]. 杭州:浙江大學, 2006.

[8] 張默. 中美非語言交際的文化差異[D]. 大連:東北財經大學, 2007.

[9] 鈄繼慧. A Survey of Teachers’ Body Language in English Teaching[D]. 金華:浙江師范大學, 2005.

[10] 李惠. 中西方人體語言之文化差異[J]. 達縣師范高等??茖W校學報(綜合報), 2000.

[11] 范溫華. 使用身勢語[M]. 北京: 北京出版社, 1991.

[12] 趙海楠. 試論人體語言學的概念及其他[J]. 湘潭大學學報(哲學社會科學報), 1995.

[13] Malando L, Barker L. Nonverbal Communication[M]. New York: Random House, 1989.

[14] 車英君. 文化相對論視角下的中美身勢語的比較研究[D]. 大連:遼寧師范大學, 2009.

[15] Li S G. Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication and College English Teaching[D]. Nan Jing: School of Foreign Language Southwest University, 2006.

[16] 牟薇薇. 大學生英語非語言交際能力實證研究[D]. 大連: 遼寧師范大學, 2009.

. New York: Greewood Press, 1969.

[18] Efron D. Gesture, Race and Culture[M]. The Hague: Mouton, 1972.

[19] 畢繼萬. 跨文化非語言交際[M]. 北京: 外語教學與研究出版社, 1998.

[20] 唐振華. 身勢語的文化含義[J]. 深圳大學學報(人文社會科學版), 1996.

[21] Ekman P. Facial Expression[M]. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 1999.

[22] 何紅蓮. 中外身勢語文化差異淺釋[J]. 警官文苑, 2006.

[23] 王星河. 談非言語式交際及其在教學中的運用[D]. 南京: 南京師范大學, 2004.

 

                    

                誠 信 承 諾

我謹在此承諾:本人所寫的畢業論文《肢體語言在中美文化中的比較》均系本人獨立完成,沒有抄襲行為,凡涉及其他作者的觀點和材料,均作了注釋,若有不實,后果由本人承擔。

 

                承諾人(簽名):      

篇6

關鍵詞: 傳統文化;中職教育;中職德育;德育教育

G711

隨著經濟社會的發展,社會現象紛繁復雜,社會思想浮躁,傳統文化缺位現實社會。作為對中華文明的有效傳承,傳統觀念文化在現代思維體系中依然居于核心位置[1]。在中職德育教育體系當中,對于傳統文化的重視程度不足,直接導致了德育教育水平的低下。在中職院校中,學生相對較為年輕,人生觀、世界觀、價值觀正在形成階段,將傳統文化融入德育教育,提升傳統文化的影響力和教學性,對于提高中職德育教育水平具有重要意義。

一、中職德育教育現狀分析

從中職德育教育體系及內容安排角度來分析,傳統文化在德育教育課程中所占的比重明顯不足,教學時間少,學生和教師不夠重視,教學手段和模式老舊,都直接制約中職德育教育水平的提升。

(一)重視程度不足

隨著經濟社會的快速發展,中等職業教育迎來了發展的黃金期。隨著教育規模的擴大,中職專業教育水平不斷提升,為社會輸送了大量專業技術人才[2]。為了強化辦學競爭力,中職院校將大部分教學精力都分配給了專業技術學習,對于德育教育,明顯存在著重視程度不足的問題。在開展道德教育的過程當中,課程流于形式,不僅學生沒有足夠的學習興趣,教師自身也缺乏相應的重視程度,直接導致了教學目標不明確、教學手段單一、課程內容枯燥等問題。在中職德育教育過程當中,一般都是單純的理論宣教,傳統文化在課程內容中的比重很小,這就直接導致了學生對于課程缺乏認同感,認為德育教育都是一些“假大空”的東西,很難深入學習。因此,在中職德育教育當中,德育學科沒有受到足夠的重視,特別是傳統文化內容在德育教育體系中更是嚴重缺位,根源在于思想重視程度的不足[3]。

(二)傳統文化缺位現代課堂

在開展中職德育教育過程當中,不管是教育工作者還是學生,都存在著這樣的思維誤區,認為進入中職學校學習,就是為了學習一技之長,掌握一門專業技術,對于思想道德內容的學習是次要內容。因此,導致了德育教育學科時間安排不足,課程內容缺乏體系性和針對性,一般教學內容也都局限在職業道德上,中華傳統文化在現代課堂中難覓蹤影。在開展教學過程當中,德育教育老師不能將現代職業要求和中華傳統文化有機結合,長此以往,德育教育水平的發展,跟不上專業技術科目的發展。

二、傳統文化在中職德育教育中的意義分析

(一)可以提高中職學生思想道德水平

在中職教育當中,培養具有良好思想道德水平的專業人才,是開展現代職業教育的重要目標。在開展專業技術的同時,通過開展德育教育,傳導中華傳統文化,可以有效提升學生思想道德水平,滿足現代教學要求。

職業技術人才是社會發展的中堅力量,通過愛國主義、集體主義、大局意識、節儉美德等中華傳統文化的學習,可以有效提升學生綜合素質。在開展德育教育過程當中,最大的問題就是學生缺乏足夠的認同感,對于思想政治教育內容缺乏足夠的認知,認為其都是空洞的理論,缺乏足夠的支撐。因此,將傳統文化融入中職德育教育,可以夯實學科基礎,在宣講理論的同時,通過中華傳統文化,尋求理論根基,提升教育的扎實性和針對性[4]。在中華傳統文化中,強調儒家思想,強調仁義禮智信,在現代社會競爭發展當中,這些思想依舊具有重要作用,對于德育教育課程而言,中華傳統文化是其理論根基和思想源泉,通過強化中華傳統文化教育,可以有效提升德育教育水平和效果

(二)可以服務專業技術課程學習

開展德育教育,可以有效服務專業技術學習,幫助學生形成正確的價值取向,引導學生更好的開展專業學習。利用德育教育引導學生學習專業內容,強化學生責任意識,傳統文化具有重要作用。從古至今,中華傳統文化與現代職業發展一脈相承,中華傳統文化思想和典型案例,都是對職業精神的最好佐證,通過強化傳統文化在當代中職德育教育體系中的有機融入,可以有效引導學生開展專業學科的學習,提升學習的效果,保障專業學習按照正確的價值方向發展。

在中職德育教育當中融入傳統文化,可以有效激勵學生學習熱情,強化學生對于中職德育教育學科的重視程度,與此同時,傳統文化具有一定的歷史人文特征,可以豐富德育教育體系,提升課程教育的趣味性和針對性,吸引學生參與其中,更積極主動的完成德育教育課程,提升學習的自主性和積極性。

三、傳統文化融入中職德育教育的路徑

(一)充分利用歷史文化資源

在開展中職德育教育的過程當中,強化傳統文化地位,不能是無本之木、無源之水,不要空洞宣講理論,要強化典型案例和典型人物的選取,提升教育內容的針對性,讓學生找到學習的榜樣和抓手,提升德育教育效果。中華傳統文化中包換的歷史文化資源,正是開展當代中職德育教育的理想素材[5]。

(二)利用傳統文化提升綜合素養

中華傳統文化滲透當代中職德育教育體系,不是對理論的單純宣講,在傳統文化當中,不僅有為國獻身的仁人志士,同時也要技術精湛的能工巧匠,通過思想道德和專業水平兩方面的引導,可以有效提升德育教育水平,同時服務專業教育,打造全面發展的現代技術人才。

四、結語

綜上所述,在中職德育教學體系中,傳統文化是不可或缺的一部分。在實踐教學當中,德育教育工作者要突出傳統文化地位,充分挖掘傳統文化中蘊含的歷史文化資源,為現代德育教學提供有效的指引和督導。通過對傳統文化的發掘,提升學生的文化認同感和思想道德水平,提升中職學生思想道德水平。不可否認,在中職德育教育體系中,普遍存在傳統文化缺位的問題,亟待教育工作者做出相應改進,進而實現中職德育教育水平的有效提升,為社會培養更多具有良好思想道德水平的專業技術人才。

參考文獻:

[1]黃海星.新時期中職德育教育中傳統文化教育的應用[J].考試周刊,2013(A4):162-163.

[2]李春來.淺談傳統文化在當代中職德育教育中的意義[J].科教文匯,2011(20):19,24.

[3]楊涵.淺談中華傳統文化在中職德育教育中的作用[J].科學時代,2014(2) :147-148..

篇7

【關鍵詞】英語教學;文化元素;中西文化滲透

語言是文化的載體,語言與文化相得益彰。學習一門外語能夠促進人的心智發展,有助于學生認知世界的多樣性,提高人文素養。構建在英語教學中文化素養,有助于培養學生積極向上的情感態度和價值觀。

詞匯教學滲透文化意識

眾所周知,中國的方塊漢字和西方的拼音文字,其根源都是象形文字。在語言教學中,詞匯是最活躍的部分,匯教學必含文化涵義。如Christmas,聯想The Spring Festival,最好能介紹二者的異同。Thanksgiving Day,追其朔源,首創于美國,1879年加拿大人也開始過感恩節。Thanksgiving Day原意為感謝印第安人,后來人們在這一天感謝其他人,是美國最地道的假日。美、加兩國人都過感恩節,卻時間不同:美國過感恩節一般在11月22--28之間,加拿大人在每年10月的第二個星期一。詞匯pig往往和詞匯“懶惰、笨拙、骯臟”等關聯,于是eat like a pig(大吃大喝)和you greedy pig(你這個貪吃的家伙)以及What do you expect from a pig but a grunt?(狗嘴里吐不出象牙來) 等應運而生。在it is raining cats and dogs(傾盆大雨)中的dog一詞,中國學生就覺得不可思議,其實dog和cat里也有其文化意義。原來在古老的倫敦,一場大雨過后整個街道一片,淹死了許多迷路的貓和狗。雨過天晴,滿街死狗死貓,似乎天上下了眾多的貓和狗,成就了it is raining cats and dogs這個成語的文化背景。 另外,從漢語中的“狗仗人勢、狗膽包天、狼心狗肺”等成語和俗語“狗改不了吃屎”等對dog的描述是貶義性的,但西方人的a lucky dog(幸運兒),to be top dog(身居要位),every dog has its day(凡人也有得意日)等折射出dog是個褒義詞,A dog is the man’s best friend的美麗句子形容狗我們也就不足為奇。在西方喊comrade,對方會呆若木雞,但Sir或Madam,Lady等,交流就無障礙。

語言中,身體部位器官也能表示不同文化含義。a true friend reaches for your hand and touches your heart.一句中的hand 和heart已經超越了“手”和“心臟”,而分別引申為“援手”和“心靈”之意。Don’t see eye to eye with somebody(不贊同某人)中的eye不是“眼睛”的意思;have a big mouth(愛到處嚷嚷)中mouth不是嘴巴的意思;laugh from ear to ear(笑得合不攏嘴巴)中的ear也失去了“耳朵”的本意。

句子\用和中西文化滲透

談到句子,七年級下冊Unit 4 Don’t eat in class就油然而生。這是一個典型的祈使句。祈使句包含了很多文化元素:中國人性格剛烈,較為直接,長晚輩意識、上下級觀念較西方人士更強,習慣在更多的場合使用祈使句,最常見的“請”字就足以展現中國人的禮貌和客氣。英語國家則完全不同,謙讓和禮貌室人們的基本禮儀,有時會讓這些初到西方國家的中國人感到很不適應。我國語言工作者沈瑛談及在英國的感悟時曾這樣描述:“與我們想象的不同,英國人指路的時候都習慣用if開頭的語句,這樣聽起來更禮貌、更親切,如:If you walk around the corner over there, you will see a bridge. The station is not far from there. If you go upstairs to the second floor and turn left. The office is down the corridor on your left.他們還生怕你沒領會,總要重復幾遍直到放心為止。有時他們的熱情相助真的讓你感動。”因此,在英語教學中,多用Would you mind not making noise?You’d better work hard,If you work hard, you will do better等委婉句。盡量避免Don’t be in my way和go away這樣的句子。

Long time no see(好久不見)是一個典型的中式英語句子,但其融合中西文化。近年來,漢語以外來詞的身份進入英語語言屢見不鮮,如:tofu(豆腐).mahjong(麻將),typhoon(臺風),tai ji(太極),jiaozi(餃子)putonghua(普通話),中西合璧的wan ton soup(餛燉),taikonaut(中國航天員)等。必須提醒:不能讓學生隨意創造諸如good, good study, day day up;people mountain people sea(人山人海)中式英語,以免產生誤解。

閱讀教學中滲透文化意識

篇8

【關鍵詞】空;文字學;中國傳統文化

一、引言

“空”字是中國歷史上出現較早的一個字,譬如《詩經·小雅·大東》中有這么一句話:小東大東,杼柚其空;《管子·五輔》也有一句話:“倉廩實而囹圄空”;《史記·莊子傳》:“皆空言無事實”……隨著其字義的不斷發展,所涉及的領域也越來越廣泛,“空”不僅是詩歌的一種境界,也是繪畫藝術的一種境界,還是佛教道教的理想境界,更是人生的至高境界。

二、“空”字的本義

辨析一個詞的本義,首先我們要從這個字的字形入手。因為漢字的形體結構與意義有密切的關系,所以字形所反映出來的意義往往是其本義。這就需要了解字形演變的歷史,特別要當心字體傳訛的情形。

漢代許慎《說文解字》里對“空”的解釋是:空,竅也,“從穴工聲”,哭紅切。“竅也”,就是“孔”的意思?!皬难üぢ暋笔紫日f明,“空”是一個形聲字,“穴”的偏旁表示這是一個與土壤相關的字。除了從字形初步推測,我們還必須要有實際的語言材料來證明?!妒酚洝の宓郾炯o》“舜穿井為匿空旁出”,意思就是說舜把井壁穿一暗孔到別的井出來。再根據商務印書館《古漢語常用字字典》第5版對“空”的釋義有:

kǒng 通“孔”。洞。

因此,我們可以初步判斷“空”的本義是洞,且是一個通假字,通“孔”。

三、“空”字詞義的演變與拓展

一般說來,一個字的字形所表現出來的意義與實際語言中作為詞的意義相符合時,就是它的本義??墒?,隨著社會的發展和語言自身的因素,字詞的意義也在不斷地作漸進式的發展或改變。字詞的本義有時候卻反而消失不用,只用最常用的基本義了。為了解析“空”字的字義發展脈絡,筆者將自己在ccl語料庫中搜檢到的包含“空”字的句子進行一個統計,大致把握了“空”這個字的字義以及演變情況。從資料庫檢索來看,“空”字含義豐富,詞性多樣,可以作名詞、形容詞、動詞、副詞。下面,一一舉例說明:

【名詞】

⒈空中;天空

⑴復道行空。——唐·杜牧《阿房宮賦》

⑵濁浪排空。——宋·范仲淹《岳陽樓記》

⒉佛教用語。萬物從來都是因緣而生,沒有固定,虛幻不實,“空”亦特指天臺宗所立“空、假、中”三諦中的真諦。佛教認為世界一切皆空。因此佛教又稱“空門”。如“遁入空門”。

“空”又可以指佛門,如:空王,這是佛教徒對佛的尊敬。

⒊道家謂虛靜之性。

⑴澹乎若深泉之靜,泛乎若不系之舟。不以生故自寶兮,養空而浮?!段倪x》。

【形容詞】

⒈空虛;內無所有。引申為空虛處,空檔。

⑴空,空虛?!稄V韻》

⑵常有高猿長嘯,屬引凄異,空谷傳響?!端涀ⅰそ?/p>

⑶而或長煙一空?!巍し吨傺汀对狸枠怯洝?/p>

⒉罄盡;空其所有。引申為沒有。

而或長煙一空,皓月千里?!吨傺汀对狸枠怯洝?/p>

⒊廣闊;空曠。

寥寥空宇中,所講在玄虛。——左思《詠史》

⒋岑寂;幽靜。如:空峽,指寂靜的山谷

⒌明凈無掛礙。如:空灑灑,形容胸懷灑脫,毫無牽掛

⒍空洞而不實際;空泛;虛構。

⑴以空言求璧。——《史記?廉頗藺相如列傳》

⑵欲以如父如天之空名?!澹奎S宗羲《原君》

【動詞】

使空虛;使罄盡。

⑴內空府庫之藏,外乏執備之用?!尔}鐵論·本議》

⑵乃出圖書,空囊橐,徐徐焉實狼其中?!R中錫《中山狼傳》

【副詞】

⒈徒然;白白地。

⑴白云千載空悠悠?!啤ご揞棥饵S鶴樓》

⑵空余淚痕。——清·林覺民《與妻書》

⒉只;僅。

⑴雪上空留馬行處?!啤め瘏ⅰ栋籽└杷臀渑泄贇w京》

⑵此處空余黃鶴樓?!啤ご揞棥饵S鶴樓》

“空”的基本義是

空,這個義項使用的頻率高,致使我們都錯把它當本義。而“空”眾多的義項都是通過“天空”這個義項或引申或比喻得到的。但是,這個佛教和道家用語“空”具體和“天空”這個義項是什么關系,還有待進一步考察。不過,我們可以考證其形容詞的義項全是“天空”這一義項直接引申得到,又叫做輻射式引申:

罄盡;空其所有 空洞而不實際;空泛;虛構

↖ ↗

明凈無掛礙天空空虛;內無所有

岑寂;幽靜 廣闊;空曠

比喻義,是就漢字(詞)的原有的某義項因為比喻而產生的意義。因此,比喻也是一種引申義,是一種間接引申。“空”之后的動詞和副詞義項都是其“天空”義項的間接引申,也就是比喻義?!翱铡弊值淖至x發展,符合人們認識事物的順序,它的詞義事從具體到抽象的一個變化過程。需要我們注意的是,文字的發展與社會文化有著密不可分的關系。文字與社會文化的關系也是文字學研究的主要問題。下面,我們就研究下“空”字在中國傳統文化中的意義和內涵。(下轉第217頁)

(上接第215頁)

四、“空”字在中國傳統文化中的意

⒈佛教之“空”

佛教自漢代傳入中國,一直為廣大人民所尊奉,其主要原因還是在于佛教的既豐富又深刻的思想和精神?!翱铡睘槠渲饕枷胫唬斎?,佛教的“空”,并不是我們常態理解的“一切皆空”“什么都否定”的消極思想,而是有著多層次的內涵。 首先,佛教的“無我觀”用現代人的眼光來詮釋,那就是:精神高于物質,人格高于生命,社會高于個人。這就要求我們忘記小我,成全大我;淡泊名利,淡泊享受。這也是“無我”與“有我”“自性”與“空性”的辯證統一。其次,佛教的“空”,從解脫的意義來說就是要超越生命的意義,視“生老病死”為常事,坦然面對自身的缺陷以及不足,不張揚不喧囂,活出最真的自我,這是“無?!迸c“有常”的關系。

有無、虛實、真假這些根本理論問題和實踐問題在歷史上既留下了理論誤區,也留下了理性思辨,利弊兼有。而復雜的佛家讓筆者這個佛教“門外漢”始終不得其要領,因此,寥寥幾筆,勾勒便罷。

⒉詩之“空”

毋庸置疑,“空”是文學語言,“空”在王維詩中營造出了一種幽美空靈的意境,它似乎是詩人王維用來描述其詩性人生的特殊畫筆,將美展現在讀者面前。在王維的神筆下,有“空山”、“空谷”、“空林”等意象和“虛空”等意境。如:

空山新雨后,天氣晚來秋?!渡骄忧镪浴?/p>

行踏空林落葉聲?!哆^乘如禪師蕭居士嵩邱蘭若》

“空山新雨后,天氣晚來秋”這句詩中的“空”,一字傳神,這一“空”字不僅寫出山中的幽靜,更寫出密林之幽深,溪流之清澈,以及詩人的情感。而“行踏空林落葉聲”中的“空”也是不可替換,絕妙至極,空曠的樹林,滿地的落葉,颯颯的風聲,以及腳踏落葉發出的沙沙聲,惟妙傳神。

古詩詞中頻頻出現“空”字,一是與其本身的表現力有關,“空”者“無”也,而“無”正適應了詩歌充分想象力的需要,以“無”來表現無窮的“有”。二是與封建社會正直文人的坎坷經歷有關,因為“空”字可傳遞出詩人或隱居或抑郁或惆悵或憤懣等諸多復雜的感情。

⒊人之“空”

不管是佛教,或者道家思想的宣揚,我們不得不承認,“空”字在人們心目中的地位,古往今來,文人墨客,很多人都在追求這個“空”。玄奘的“空”成就了他的大愛,歷經艱辛,取得真經。當然,人們所追求的“空”首先是“六根清凈”“無欲無求”,這與佛教人士的又有所不同,“六根清凈”“無欲無求”是說:追逐夢想,實現自我。人更應該注重的是自己的心靈凈化,是自己的精神提升,也就是說精神世界的豐富。

五、結語

綜上所述,在中國傳統文化中,“空”是一個意義豐富的字,是詩歌領域一個很重要的概念,是貫穿佛教道家哲學理論的中心思想,是人們追求的心靈至高境界。尚“空”心態,在建設社會主義精神文明的今天也有現實意義。在“空”的環境中,我們的創造才更加純粹。

【參考文獻】

[1]董山民.析“空”[j].唐山學院學報,2003(12).

[2]馮廣藝.空:作為元語言和對象語言——以王維詩為例[j].江漢大學學報, 2005(10).

[3]許慎.說文解字[m].中華書局,2004.

[4]王力.古漢語常用字字典(第5

篇9

關鍵詞:觀念藝術;傳統文化;資源;分析

根據以往的相關研究,我國傳統文化資源處在開發階段,而且前衛藝術也逐漸走在時代的前沿,尤其在20世紀90年代,該類藝術形式已經取得了相應的發展。隨著當前文化資源的開發,不斷推動觀念藝術的發展,尤其在資源共享的階段。綜合以往的相關研究,波折認為可以運用一個簡單的公式來總結當前我國藝術的創作態度,具體總結如下:中國當代社會=文化問題(觀念內容)+中國文化資源(表現形式)。這個公式在一定程度反映了當前資源的運用與開發,促進各種資源共享。

1 我國觀念藝術發展概況

1.1 觀念藝術在我國流行的概況

根據我國藝術發展的相關要求,不斷推動當前觀念藝術的發展。由于我國文化發展的情況與西方顯著不同,尤其在當前文化背景下,不斷創新各種文化機制,尤其在藝術發展過程中,不斷推動我國觀念藝術的發展。在觀念藝術發展過程中,將當前藝術表現形式與藝術內容進行整合,不斷推動當前社會觀念內涵的發展,其中包括當前藝術自由化思想,其中包括儒家的道德風格,通過豐富當前觀念藝術表現形式,提供豐富的藝術形式,為當前各類的發展提供良好的條件。

1.2 觀念藝術的內涵

根據當前觀念藝術的發展,國內外學者對藝術的發展進行了深入的探究。觀念藝術主要指在人們的頭腦中,通過主觀塑造觀念形象,推動當前藝術資源的分配。隨著我國觀念藝術的發展,不斷促進各種觀念的發展。綜合以往的相關研究,其內涵主要包括以下幾個方面:

一是創造性;二是豐富性;三是發展性;四是時代性;五是共融性。

2 觀念藝術的發展背景

隨著觀念藝術在我國的發展,一些傳統藝術形式將會影響到當前觀念藝術的表達。根據我國觀念藝術發展趨勢,我國一些傳統藝術家通過不斷分化文化資源,推動各種觀念藝術的表達。在當前文化發展背景下,不斷推動文化資源的分享,其中包括文化類型的分類。根據當前藝術發展的需求,不斷促進社會藝術形式的創新,尤其是在當前文化態勢背景下,通過各種分類方式的完善,促進各種觀念的更新。在以前,中國傳統文化還沒有特定的藝術觀念,尤其受西方文化的影響,包括西方文化中的精髓部分,促進中國前衛藝術的發展,尤其是各種觀念藝術的深入??傊?,隨著當前觀念藝術的發展,其中包括藝術觀念的鞏固與藝術形式的豐富,才能推動中國藝術創新。

3 觀念藝術的表現形式

由于觀念藝術比較抽象,在當前文化發展過程中,需要不斷拓展其表現形式,根據以往的相關發展,結合分類方法的特色,將觀念藝術的表現形式分為以下三類:一是挪用并列式;二是墓改里換式;三是轉化再造式。下面根據三種表現的具體情況,將其敘述如下:

3.1 挪用并列式

挪用方式是當前觀念藝術中最為直接的表達形式,通過當前的表現形式,促進各種方法的改善,豐富當前的藝術內涵。杜尚的《泉》開啟了此類方法并被藝術家們沿用至今。廣義上的“挪用”主要指當前觀念的各種表現形式,在觀念藝術共享過程中,不斷推動各種創造活動的開展。在當前發展過程中,將“挪用”與“并列”合并,并將其發展成為一種具體的創作方式??傊搃阿雷技術主要通過創新藝術放置方式,推動當前藝術作品、公眾圖像、生活物品、人體的多元加工,促進各種藝術形式的展開,這種表現形式可以包括平面的與立體的,在這種對比的情況下,不斷增強各種藝術感染力,促進各種對比方法的改善,而且通過直觀的感受,不斷促進藝術效果展現。尤其在一些藝術作品中都很好地運用了這種方法,其中包括蔡國強的《草船借箭》、《威尼斯收租院》、王晉的《叩門》與張衛的一系列中國傳統繪畫經典作品與西方現代藝術大師作品的拼貼視像作品?!恫荽杓酚谜鎸嵉拇c箭再現了《三國演義》中的虛擬物,通過該類形式不斷推動當前各種文化關系的展現,尤其各種視覺上的美感。

3.2 墓改里換式

在當前觀念藝術發展過程中,不斷融合各種表現形式,其中包括外形上各種變化,包括當前資源的共享性,都額可以運用改化的方式進行展現,這里面包括了顛覆性和調侃的文化氣息。通過改變當前各種快捷的藝術表現形式,不斷推動各種藝術方式的創新,在當前藝術共享過程中,不斷促進各種作品的展現。作品《好》系列、王慶松的作品、黃永林的《沙的銀行或銀行的沙》等都很好地展現了當前的藝術表現形式。同時根據當前各種創作形式,不斷推動當前各種觀念的融合,包括各種資源的轉化,同時通過彼此之間的思辨,不斷推動當前藝術展現形式,在各種意義表現過程中,不斷融合各種表現工具,在這個資源共享的背景下,推動當前各種藝術魅力的呈現。根據各種發展規劃,最大限度地推動了當前資源的改善,不斷融合各種表現形式。根據中國傳統文化發展的特色,在創意文化中融合當前各種時代元素,推動創意文化的發展,在這個過程中,通過融合各種文化要素,將創意文化融合到中國傳統文化。

3.3 轉化再造式

根據當前文化資源的發展,在資源利用過程中,不斷發掘各種創作資源,通過各種資源的共享,推動觀念藝術的發展。同時在藝術觀念共享過程中,不斷完善各種材料。根據當前藝術發展的各種趨勢,通過將傳統資源轉化融合當前創作之中,推動各種藝術的表現。根據觀念藝術發展特點,不斷完善各種表現形式,有些藝術的表現,雖然看上去是對表現的渲染,不斷推動其內涵的表現,最大限度促進觀念藝術的發展。根據當前藝術的創作的,不斷推動當前資源的改善,提高各種藝術觀念,在當前資源改善過程中,推動當前該類文化資源的轉化形式。的行為、裝置《鬼打墻》、邱志杰的《重復書寫一千統資源》等均能很好展現當前的觀念藝術。這種藝術原型主要體現了中國的傳統文化,在當前轉化過程中,不斷推動觀念藝術的發展,促進各種藝術形式的融合。同時,通過不斷促進各種文化形式改善,推動內涵與形式的統一,最大限度地傳播傳統文化。該類藝術形式能夠很好地展現當前觀念藝術的表現形式,尤其是藝術的內涵的展現。

4 結語

隨著我國傳統文化資源的開發,我國藝術形式也得到了相應的發展,其中包括文化意識形態、觀念藝術作品與潛在文化資源,通^各種經典作品的完善,不斷推動各種表現方法的改善。同時,在當前前衛藝術發展過程中,通過不斷運用具體的民間藝術語言、風俗習慣或抽象古代文化意識形態等,不斷推動當前各種藝術表現形式的發展,包括各種民主文化,這也是當前發展的關鍵要素,在中國傳統文化背景基礎上,不斷推動觀念藝術形式的創新,最終不斷推動中國文化的發展。

參考文獻:

[1] 蔣長虹.觀念藝術的正反經驗及其對當代文化的影響――試論杜尚精神與當代文化[J].天津美術學院學報,2016(1):43-45.

[2] 張志偉.真理與境界――從一個觀念藝術文本反思兩種藝術觀念[J].藝術評論,2015(12):45-48.

篇10

一、為什么要在英語專業教學中導入文化知識

要求證為什么在英語專業教學中導人文化知識,首先就要弄清語言與文化之間的關系。薩丕爾認為“語言的背后是有東西的。而且語言不能離開文化而存在”。拉多在《語言教學:科學的方法》一書中指出:“我們不掌握文化背景就不可能教好語言。語言是文化的一部分。因此,不懂得文化的模式和準則,就不可能真正學到語言”。我國學者金惠康也曾指出,語言只是冰山一角,隱藏在水下的巨大主體則是文化。語言是文化的載體,語言背后蘊含著深厚的文化內涵,語言是文化的一種呈現形式。

其次,語言能力不等于交際能力。Byram認為,一個人在習得語言的同時也習得了文化。然而筆者卻不這樣認為,因為從實際情況來看,許多具備了英語語言技能的英語專業生,仍然會產生跨文化語用失誤現象,在跨文化交際中無法用英語進行得體交流。究其根源,其主要原因之一是缺乏有效的中西文化導入。從高校英語專業設置來看,絕大多數高校都側重于英語語音、語法、詞匯、寫作等語言知識的教學,認為學生只有掌握了聽說讀寫等基本技能才能進行很好的跨文化交流,其實不然。人們走進了一個誤區,即將語言能力等同于交際能力。

交際能力最早由海姆斯1972年提出,“不僅能使用語法規則來組成語法正確的句子,而且知道何時何地想和人使用這些句子的能力”。胡文仲等從理論角度分析了“交際能力”,并認為由以下幾個方面構成:其一可能性,即是否符合語法規則;其二可行性,即某些語言是否以及在多大程度上可以付諸實踐;其三適宜性,即話語在特定情境以及在多大程度上得體;其四實施狀況,即話語是否以及在多大程度上付諸實踐。

再次,我國英語教學的目的及《大綱》要求?!陡叩葘W校英語專業英語教學大綱》對新世紀英語人才提出四個方面的標準,“扎實的基本功,寬廣的知識面,一定的相關專業知識,較強的能力和較高的素質”。由此可知,我國英語教學的目標已經從傳統的單純地注重語言能力擴展到交際能力、語用能力,進而注重學習者跨文化交際能力到跨文化語用能力的培養與提高。

最后,我國英語專業生現狀及主要問題。筆者通過文獻分析法歸納出了我國英語專業生現狀及主要問題:

(1)傳統語言教學不再適應潮流,語言教學應與文化教學相結合

(2)對英文化“一邊倒”傾向;

(3)課程設置不合理。缺乏系統性,支離破碎的文化點。

(4)世界英語:用英語交流時不要生搬硬套,注意英語非母語國家的背景文化。

(5)中國文化失語癥;

(6)對母語文化的輕視和對異文化的崇拜,民族文化身份認同危機。

二、在英語專業教學中導入什么樣的文化知識

在英語專業教學中教的應該不僅僅是語言知識而且還應包括文化知識。我國在外語教學中對文化教學內容這一部分沒有做出具體的要求。

我國對外漢語教育界學者張占一等將文化分為:知識文化和交際文化。知識文化是一個民族的哲學、歷史、地理、文學、宗教等因素的綜合。交際文化是隱藏在語言系統之中,反映該民族的價值觀念、生活方式、行為準則、風俗習慣等文化因素的總稱。李匯毅曾說過“從培養跨文化或國際交流人才的角度看,英語專業教育必須重視本土文化教育和英美文化教育……只有將英語和漢語都放在重要的位置上,英語專業者才可能找回失去的民族身份”。

因此在英語專業教學中教的應該不僅僅是語言知識而且還應包括文化知識;不僅僅是學習以英語為母語國家的文化知識,更要學好中國文化知識。在學習中西方文化知識時,我們應當正確看待歷史文化,各國的風俗習慣等。要避免盲目崇外認為“西方的月亮比中國圓”,同時也要避免盲目自信,防止“文化民族中心主義”。

三、在英語專業教學中怎樣導入文化知識

筆者認為在英語專業教學中文化知識導入主要有如下幾種方法:

其一,文化異同對比法。不同民族之間的文化不同是必然的,而文化在某些方面表現出相同或相似,則是偶然的,這種現象稱為文化的偶合現象。通過專題等形式將中西文化的異同進行對比,有利于學生同時掌握兩種語言的同類型文化方面的知識。

其二,文化知識整合法。在英語專業教學中,教師們或多或少都會涉及一些中西文化知識。但在傳授中西文化知識時大多是零散的,片段式的。這樣的話,不利于學生長久記憶,以及對文化知識整體性的把握。

其三,引導課外文化自主學習法。課堂時間畢竟是有限的,更多的是課外時間的把握。教師可以通過引導學生選擇課外讀物、以及影視資料等了解中西文化知識、風土人情等。在輕松愉快的環境下,掌握知識。